Who lives in Czechia: nationality, language and the census question

A hundred years ago a walk through Prague or Brno meant Czech and German in the same street. Fifty years ago you would have heard almost only Czech and Slovak. Today Ukrainian, Russian, Vietnamese and English are audible in the metro and the markets. The ethnic and linguistic map of Czechia has been redrawn several times in a century, and it is still moving.

This piece explains how the country counts its population, what the categories mean and how to read them without being misled. For trends over time see Czech demographics: how the population is changing.

How a country became homogeneous

Before the Second World War Czechoslovakia was a multi-ethnic state, with around a third of its population neither Czech nor Slovak (see interwar Czechoslovakia: the First Republic). The Holocaust destroyed most of the Jewish population, the Roma of Bohemia and Moravia were murdered, and in 1945 and 1946 most Germans were expelled. Subcarpathian Ruthenia was ceded to the Soviet Union in 1945. What remained was a state largely Czech in the Czech lands and Slovak in Slovakia, with small minorities. The stories behind these changes are in the Czech Jewish heritage, Czech Roma community: history and context and Czech Germans and the Sudetenland.

After 1989 diversity began to return, mostly through migration rather than through historical minorities.

What the census counts

The census is held every ten years; the most recent was in 2021. Respondents are asked about their nationality (národnost) and, separately, their mother tongue. In recent censuses the nationality question has been voluntary, and many people skipped it or gave more than one identity, which was allowed. The results are therefore more complicated than a simple ranking.

Most of those who answered declare themselves Czech. Other groups include Moravians, Slovaks, Ukrainians, Vietnamese, Poles, Germans, Russians and Roma. The Moravian category needs a note: in several censuses a sizeable number of people in Moravia and Czech Silesia have declared Moravian or Silesian nationality, alone or alongside Czech. It reflects regional as much as ethnic identity, and it is tied to the separate administrative history described in Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia explained.

The 2021 census relied heavily on online forms, which changed how people filled it in. If you compare 2021 with 2011 or 2001, read the Statistical Office's methodological notes first: the questions, the response rules and the share of non-responses differ between rounds.

Nationality is not the same as citizenship or the language you speak. A Slovak citizen may declare Czech nationality, a Czech citizen may speak Vietnamese at home, and a Roma person may speak Czech as a first language. Treat the labels accordingly.

Recognised national minorities

The 2001 law on the rights of members of national minorities defines a minority as a community of citizens who differ from the majority in ethnic origin, language and culture and who wish to be considered a minority. The Government Council for National Minorities represents 14 recognised groups, among them Slovaks, Ukrainians, Vietnamese, Poles, Germans, Roma, Ruthenians, Russians, Bulgarians, Croatians, Hungarians, Greeks, Serbs and Belarusians (as of 2026; check the official source).

The rights include using the minority language in official dealings and bilingual place signs in municipalities where a minority makes up at least 10 per cent of the population and has asked for it. Few places meet the condition, notably in the Těšín area for Polish. Minority organisations can receive public funding for culture, press and education.

Languages in daily life

Czech is the language of administration, courts and schools. Slovak is widely understood, an effect of the shared state, as discussed in the Velvet Divorce, and Czech law allows Slovak to be used in many official procedures. Polish is used in the Těšín region, German in a few communities and in business, Romani in Roma communities, and Vietnamese and Ukrainian in the large immigrant communities.

English is the main second language among younger and professional Czechs, and common in Prague's service sector and in international firms. Outside Prague, and with public offices, Czech remains the practical language, so learn some; see Czech language: a short introduction. Russian was compulsory at school until 1989 and is understood by many older people, though attitudes towards its use have changed.

Immigrant communities

Labour migration, family ties and recent events shape the main foreign communities. Ukrainians are the largest group, and the refugee arrivals of 2022 changed the figures substantially. Slovaks, Vietnamese, Russians, Poles, Romanians and Bulgarians are also numerous. The Vietnamese community dates to the communist era, when workers and students came under bilateral agreements. It is now well established, with businesses and a second generation that often speaks Czech as a first language.

Many Prague residents also come from Western Europe, North America and Asia, working in international business, universities and tech. The Ministry of the Interior and the Statistical Office publish the numbers each year.

Regional patterns

Moravian and Silesian identity is strongest in the east of the country. The Těšín region on the Polish border has a Polish minority, with its own schools and organisations. The former Sudeten borderlands, resettled after 1945, are more mixed in origin than most of the country because settlers came from many places. Prague and Brno have the highest concentration of foreign residents, with workers from abroad also concentrated around large industrial plants in central Bohemia and Moravia.

Why it matters

In everyday dealings these categories matter less than in politics, but they have practical effects: the languages on public signs, school options, funding for cultural organisations and the design of surveys. If you use the data in your work, define your categories and cite the census year. The best primary sources are the Czech Statistical Office's census pages and the Government's pages on national minorities.

Frequently asked questions

Is Czechia ethnically homogeneous?

Largely, compared with most of Europe, because of the changes of the 1940s. The mix is shifting again through migration.

What is the Moravian nationality?

A category that some people in Moravia and Silesia select in the census, either alone or alongside Czech, reflecting regional identity.

Can I use a minority language with the authorities?

In municipalities where a recognised minority makes up at least 10 per cent of the population and has asked for it, under the 2001 law (as of 2026; check the official source).

How many minorities are recognised?

14, according to the government's council for national minorities (as of 2026; check the official source).